Jōmon Dogu: magic and prehistoric Japanese dolls
Dogu (土偶) literally means "earth figure," as these are human- or animal-like dolls made of fired clay, produced during the Jōmon period of prehistoric Japan. The word Jōmon is related to "rope," as this is how the pottery decoration characteristic of this period is defined, as well as the culture that produced it. The Jōmon culture is known for having animistic beliefs regarding nature, and the locations where dogu have been found suggest that they had specific magical and ritual uses.
The places where most dogu dolls have been found are in Hokkaido, Tohoku, Kanto, and Chubu. Also in Aomori and Niigata. However, their distribution was throughout present-day Japan and its islands, as they have also been found in large numbers throughout Kanagawa and even Kyushu. They are made of baked clay, and some were painted, usually with reddish pigments, and even lacquered. Others appear to have been made entirely flat and deliberately unadorned. Their decoration is always plastic, geometric, with patterns and incisions. They come in small sizes, but also larger ones. The so-called Hokkaido dogu measures 42 cm. Some dogu have geometric faces, either triangular or oval, without faces, and others have animal characteristics, such as feline faces or claws instead of hands. There are also a few ceramics in the shape of animals. The decorations on the bodies suggest that the most anthropomorphic ones wear jewelry or clothing, such as the shakōkidogū, a figure who appears to wear Inuit goggles to protect himself from the light in the snow.
Despite these differences, there are many more similarities, which maintains the mystery surrounding them: even if we only speak of the late and final period of the Jomon culture (late Jomon, from 2470 to 1250 BC, and late Jomon to 500 BC), how is it possible that during the very long Jomon period, in such distant regions, the same pattern was maintained? Especially when the representation of human forms on pottery from that period is not common in either Korea or China.
One often hears archaeological criticism claiming that everything whose use is unknown is labeled "ritual use" by the first discoverers. See the recent example of Catalhöyük, Turkey, where a new hypothesis has proposed that many of the figures found are not votive or religious, but simply toys or decorations. This is still far from proven, since in prehistory, "art for art's sake" never existed, and humankind gave greater use and meaning to absolutely everything, as their survival depended on it. But it is true that the variety of designs and motifs on clay figures requires us to categorize their importance based on their characteristics: the same care is not applied to an image of a god as to a toy.
In the case of the Dogu, their discovery was not "archaeological" as such. We have a record from 1623 in the Eiroku diary (Eiroku nikki), which describes the first discovery of one of these figures. In the middle of the Edo period, the discovery and description of these figures marked the beginning of collecting, and at the same time, the Japanese perception of a religion predating Shintoism and Buddhism, calling the dolls "from the age of the gods." Archaeologists of the Meiji Era (19th century) were the first to call them "dogu." Antiquarians became interested in the dogu, which were still found in more isolated cases, but it wasn't until after World War II that they began to be treated as archaeological remains and museum pieces, worthy of restoration and display.
Let's look at a brief classification of these clay figures:
"Venus" Dogu
Some of the most common are the so-called "Venus" figures, as they appear to represent pregnant women with wide hips and prominent breasts, which would be a common parallel to prehistoric Eurasian cultures.
Japanese archaeologists believe that, since the Jomon undoubtedly had origins in Siberia and Tibet, they probably shared their belief in a mother goddess or earth goddess, represented by the dogu, especially those with swollen bellies, perhaps simulating pregnancy, as well as ample breasts and hips, in poses very similar to the so-called prehistoric Venuses we know in Western Europe.
However, there are several voices that oppose this hypothesis, considering it a generalization, since not all dogu dolls have such characteristics as to be grouped under the female gender, or even human. Even so, it is a fact that prehistoric artifacts have been found in Siberia, Mongolia and surrounding regions, with very similar ideas and forms. It would therefore be necessary to make a concrete distinction between dogu.
It is believed that they would have been used in rituals of field fertility—as it seems in western Kyushu with rice fields—and regeneration, and even used in seasonal rites. In many rural areas of Japan, certain sculptures delimit territories and protect them: dogu could be a prelude to this custom through the protection of the first crops.
Other scholars believe that the female figures could have been made by the women themselves, and that a variety existed that were protective idols, talismans, and amulets related to a successful pregnancy, a successful birth, and the health of newborns.
Human Dogu
Some dogu dolls do not represent women, or at least, from our cultural perspective, we cannot identify them as such. The figurines that do not have the same feminine features may have been genderless representations or representations of other deities or nature spirits. For both fertility and other possible uses, these figures likely functioned as idols to whom prayers were offered, or requests and rewards were made.
There are exceptional cases, such as the dogu cradling a baby. A good number of these dogu appear in postures of prayer or reverence; however, others are simply shown seated. These have been thought to have a votive or funerary function.
Dogu with Masks
Undoubtedly the most representative is the so-called "Hollow" Dogu from Nagano, whose conservation has confirmed that, indeed, those dogu whose faces seemed deformed into triangles, spirals, heads resembling animals, etc., were actually human dogu with masks, most likely shamanic representations, both of the shamans themselves and of the spirits with whom they contacted. However, except in cases where an animal can be recognized, the significance of these masks is unknown, for example, a heart-shaped mask, a beak like a mountain, or a flat, squashed head.
Dogu with Serpent Crowns
Especially in finds from Kanagawa Prefecture, dogu have been found that appear to have coiled snakes on their heads, or crowns with snakes. It is believed that these figures represent the shamans of the snake cult, or that they may have been tools of these shamans, perhaps even representations of a snake deity—and once again, associated with the earth.
Some have attempted to identify the snake depicted as the mamushi, a local Japanese species that inhabits high mountains and around lakes; specifically, Lake Suwa had large Jomon populations. This snake, when biting, transmits a venom that causes alterations in the nervous system, leading anthropologists to believe it could have been used as a stimulant or divine vehicle among the shamans of the Jomon culture.
Animal worship, and specifically that of snakes, is common throughout the eastern region, where hats and ceramics have been found in the Yang-shao culture of China, and drums, staffs, and garments with snakes in the Buryat culture of Siberia.
Dogu animals
Some dogu figures are shaped like animals. For example, the Totsurasawa monkey or the Tokoshinai wild boar, both found in Aomori and dating from the late period of the Jomon culture. Other figures are deformed animals, with their hips, breasts, or bellies exaggerated. There seems to be a consensus among archaeologists regarding these dogu, postulating that they must have been made and used for magical rituals propitiating hunting or fishing, or centered on animal fertility.
More interesting are the humanoid figures with certain animal characteristics. While the faces were thought, as previously mentioned, to be masks, anthropomorphic dogu with claws or horns, as well as animal skin patterns, have also been found. The most famous is the dogu from Kamikurokoma, Yamanashi Prefecture, currently housed in the Tokyo National Museum. Only its upper torso remains, but it has a cat or fox head, animal paws, and shoulders marked with a circular, punctured pattern. Therefore, there is doubt as to whether it represents a shaman or a deity or spirit—in Japanese folklore, animals often take humanized forms.
Broken Dogu
Many of the clay figures found were broken, but what is interesting is that their breakage was not accidental: they had been deliberately broken and smashed. Some are missing parts of their bodies, others have been broken into pieces. It is believed that these dogu had a medicinal character, replacing the person and "breaking and releasing" the diseased part. This medicine was likely also spiritual: breaking the dogu could have involved some kind of exorcism, as well as purification and freedom from guilt and impurities.
Some theories suggest a different use. The ritual would not be sympathetic magic, "breaking the dogu so that it will happen in reality," but rather breaking it after having obtained what was requested. For example, breaking the clay figure of an animal after having successfully hunted it, or after a successful birth; or even further: enclosing a spirit in a doll and releasing it when the request has been fulfilled.
Buried dogu
This last point could be related to the Jomon belief in buried dogu. Although most dogu have been found in settlements, several were intentionally buried, often inside small stone circles. These dogu can be considered substitutes for the deceased, or containers for guiding spirits for the afterlife, as well as part of the deceased's grave goods. In Hokkaido, the existence of clay funerary offerings has been attested, a role these dogu could also fulfill.
Protective Dogu
Finally, we have a broad category that could include almost all of the dogu mentioned throughout this article: dogu with a protective function.
Whether imbued with spirits or not, it is widely accepted that many dogu would have a talismanic and protective function, both for homes and individuals, and probably for wider areas. Today, in several rural areas of Japan, small statuettes can be found to guard the boundaries of a crop field, or as protection against natural disasters or disease.
While art for art's sake is not considered in prehistory, it is true that the care taken in making a ceramic piece and its decoration symbolize its importance and function. In this sense, something that is going to be displayed, even temporarily, will always be more carefully crafted than something that is not. In addition to serving as amulets, these figurines could have been the recipients of all these evils, replacing the population and therefore being later buried, expelled, or destroyed.
Pietro V. Carracedo Ahumada - pietrocarracedo@gmail.com
Bibliography
- Kenrick, D. M. Jomon of Japan: The World's Oldest Pottery. Kagan Paul International, University of Michigan, 1995
- VV.AA. All about Archeology in Tokyo National Museum. Tokyo National Museum, 2023.
- VV.AA. The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Figurines. OUP Oxford, 2017
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